1. Rieder F, Fiocchi C, Rogler G. Mechanisms, management, and treatment of fibrosis in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastroenterology 2017;152:340-350.
2. Rieder F. Managing intestinal fibrosis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 2018;14:120-122.
3. Lewis A, Nijhuis A, Mehta S, et al. Intestinal fibrosis in Crohn’s disease: role of microRNAs as fibrogenic modulators, serum biomarkers, and therapeutic targets. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015;21:1141-1150.
6. Munkholm P, Langholz E, Davidsen M, Binder V. Disease activity courses in a regional cohort of Crohn’s disease patients. Scand J Gastroenterol 1995;30:699-706.
10. Buisson A, Chevaux JB, Allen PB, Bommelaer G, Peyrin-Biroulet L. Review article: the natural history of postoperative Crohn’s disease recurrence. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;35:625-633.
11. Holvoet T, Devriese S, Castermans K, et al. Treatment of intestinal fibrosis in experimental inflammatory bowel disease by the pleiotropic actions of a local Rho kinase inhibitor. Gastroenterology 2017;153:1054-1067.
13. Chan WP, Mourad F, Leong RW. Crohn’s disease associated strictures. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;33:998-1008.
14. Bettenworth D, Rieder F. Pathogenesis of intestinal fibrosis in inflammatory bowel disease and perspectives for therapeutic implication. Dig Dis 2017;35:25-31.
15. Latella G, Di Gregorio J, Flati V, Rieder F, Lawrance IC. Mechanisms of initiation and progression of intestinal fibrosis in IBD. Scand J Gastroenterol 2015;50:53-65.
20. Burke JP, Mulsow JJ, O’Keane C, Docherty NG, Watson RW, O’Connell PR. Fibrogenesis in Crohn’s disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2007;102:439-448.
23. Lenti MV, Di Sabatino A. Intestinal fibrosis. Mol Aspects Med 2019;65:100-109.
25. Graham MF, Willey A, Adams J, Diegelmann RF. Corticosteroids increase procollagen gene expression, synthesis, and secretion by human intestinal smooth muscle cells. Gastroenterology 1995;109:1454-1461.
27. Powell DW, Mifflin RC, Valentich JD, Crowe SE, Saada JI, West AB. Myofibroblasts: II. intestinal subepithelial myofibroblasts. Am J Physiol 1999;277-C183-C201.
28. Mifflin RC, Pinchuk IV, Saada JI, Powell DW. Intestinal myofibroblasts: targets for stem cell therapy. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2011;300-G684-G696.
30. Otte JM, Rosenberg IM, Podolsky DK. Intestinal myofibroblasts in innate immune responses of the intestine. Gastroenterology 2003;124:1866-1878.
36. Lawrance IC, Rogler G, Bamias G, et al. Cellular and molecular mediators of intestinal fibrosis. J Crohns Colitis 2017;11:1491-1503.
38. Brittan M, Chance V, Elia G, et al. A regenerative role for bone marrow following experimental colitis: contribution to neovasculogenesis and myofibroblasts. Gastroenterology 2005;128:1984-1995.
39. Fiocchi C, Lund PK. Themes in fibrosis and gastrointestinal inflammation. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2011;300-G677-G683.
43. Medina C, Santos-Martinez MJ, Santana A, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta type 1 receptor (ALK5) and Smad proteins mediate TIMP-1 and collagen synthesis in experimental intestinal fibrosis. J Pathol 2011;224:461-472.
45. Lawrance IC, Maxwell L, Doe W. Altered response of intestinal mucosal fibroblasts to profibrogenic cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2001;7:226-236.
46. Leeb SN, Vogl D, Falk W, Schölmerich J, Rogler G, Gelbmann CM. Regulation of migration of human colonic myofibroblasts. Growth Factors 2002;20:81-91.
47. Lin X, Wen J, Liu R, Gao W, Qu B, Yu M. Nintedanib inhibits TGF-beta-induced myofibroblast transdifferentiation in human Tenon’s fibroblasts. Mol Vis 2018;24:789-800.
48. Latella G, Sferra R, Speca S, Vetuschi A, Gaudio E. Can we prevent, reduce or reverse intestinal fibrosis in IBD? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2013;17:1283-1304.
56. Fichtner-Feigl S, Fuss IJ, Young CA, et al. Induction of IL-13 triggers TGF-beta1-dependent tissue fibrosis in chronic 2,4,6- trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis. J Immunol 2007;178:5859-5870.
57. Fichtner-Feigl S, Young CA, Kitani A, Geissler EK, Schlitt HJ, Strober W. IL-13 signaling via IL-13R alpha2 induces major downstream fibrogenic factors mediating fibrosis in chronic TNBS colitis. Gastroenterology 2008;135:2003-2013.
58. Scheibe K, Kersten C, Schmied A, et al. Inhibiting interleukin 36 receptor signaling reduces fibrosis in mice with chronic intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 2019;156:1082-1097.
59. Mao R, Rieder F. Cooling down the hot potato: anti-interleukin 36 therapy prevents and treats experimental intestinal fibrosis. Gastroenterology 2019;156:871-873.
60. Scheibe K, Backert I, Wirtz S, et al. IL-36R signalling activates intestinal epithelial cells and fibroblasts and promotes mucosal healing
in vivo. Gut 2017;66:823-838.
64. Li H, Song J, Niu G, et al. TL1A blocking ameliorates intestinal fibrosis in the T cell transfer model of chronic colitis in mice. Pathol Res Pract 2018;214:217-227.
66. Rieder F. The gut microbiome in intestinal fibrosis: environmental protector or provocateur? Sci Transl Med 2013;5:190-ps10.
67. Takeuchi O, Akira S. Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation. Cell 2010;140:805-820.
68. Rieder F, Bhilocha S, Schirbel A, et al. Activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 5 induces a pro-fibrogenic phenotype on human intestinal myofibroblasts (HIF): a novel pathway mediated by caspase 1. Gastroenterology 2011;140:S-114.
69. Hasan UA, Trinchieri G, Vlach J. Toll-like receptor signaling stimulates cell cycle entry and progression in fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 2005;280:20620-20627.
72. Targan SR, Landers CJ, Yang H, et al. Antibodies to CBir1 flagellin define a unique response that is associated independently with complicated Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2005;128:2020-2028.
73. Hugot JP, Chamaillard M, Zouali H, et al. Association of
NOD2 leucine-rich repeat variants with susceptibility to Crohn’s disease. Nature 2001;411:599-603.
74. Economou M, Trikalinos TA, Loizou KT, Tsianos EV, Ioannidis JP. Differential effects of
NOD2 variants on Crohn’s disease risk and phenotype in diverse populations: a metaanalysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004;99:2393-2404.
75. Mourelle M, Salas A, Guarner F, Crespo E, García-Lafuente A, Malagelada JR. Stimulation of transforming growth factor beta1 by enteric bacteria in the pathogenesis of rat intestinal fibrosis. Gastroenterology 1998;114:519-526.
76. Pucilowska JB, Williams KL, Lund PK. Fibrogenesis. IV. Fibrosis and inflammatory bowel disease: cellular mediators and animal models. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2000;279-G653-G659.
77. Rieder F, Kessler S, Sans M, Fiocchi C. Animal models of intestinal fibrosis: new tools for the understanding of pathogenesis and therapy of human disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2012;303-G786-G801.
78. Wells RG. The role of matrix stiffness in regulating cell behavior. Hepatology 2008;47:1394-1400.
80. Johnson LA, Luke A, Sauder K, Moons DS, Horowitz JC, Higgins PD. Intestinal fibrosis is reduced by early elimination of inflammation in a mouse model of IBD: impact of a “top-down” approach to intestinal fibrosis in mice. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012;18:460-471.
81. Peyrin-Biroulet L, Chamaillard M, Gonzalez F, et al. Mesenteric fat in Crohn’s disease: a pathogenetic hallmark or an innocent bystander? Gut 2007;56:577-583.
82. Sheehan AL, Warren BF, Gear MW, Shepherd NA. Fat-wrapping in Crohn’s disease: pathological basis and relevance to surgical practice. Br J Surg 1992;79:955-958.
83. Kredel LI, Batra A, Stroh T, et al. Adipokines from local fat cells shape the macrophage compartment of the creeping fat in Crohn’s disease. Gut 2013;62:852-862.
84. Lech M, Anders HJ. Macrophages and fibrosis: how resident and infiltrating mononuclear phagocytes orchestrate all phases of tissue injury and repair. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013;1832:989-997.
86. Rieder F, Doyon G, Ouyang Z, West G, Fiocchi C. 573 Adipocyte and preadipocyte derived-mediators induce a PRO-fibrogenic phenotype in human intestinal mesenchymal cells: a novel link between fat and intestinal fibrosis. Gastroenterology 2014;146:S-106.
87. Di Sabatino A, Jackson CL, Pickard KM, et al. Transforming growth factor beta signalling and matrix metalloproteinases in the mucosa overlying Crohn’s disease strictures. Gut 2009;58:777-789.
88. Monteleone G, Pallone F, MacDonald TT. Smad7 in TGF-beta-mediated negative regulation of gut inflammation. Trends Immunol 2004;25:513-517.
90. Biancheri P, Giuffrida P, Docena GH, MacDonald TT, Corazza GR, Di Sabatino A. The role of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta in modulating the immune response and fibrogenesis in the gut. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2014;25:45-55.
91. Li C, Kuemmerle JF. Tu1772: epigenetic silencing of Smad7 contributes to fibrosis in stricturing Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2018;154:S-1015.
92. Monteleone G, Mann J, Monteleone I, et al. A failure of transforming growth factor-beta1 negative regulation maintains sustained NF-kappaB activation in gut inflammation. J Biol Chem 2004;279:3925-3932.
93. Kennedy BW. Mongersen: an oral SMAD7 antisense oligonucleotide, and Crohn’s disease. N Engl J Med 2015;372:2461.
94. Zorzi F, Calabrese E, Monteleone I, et al. A phase 1 open-label trial shows that smad7 antisense oligonucleotide (GED0301) does not increase the risk of small bowel strictures in Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012;36:850-857.
96. Lewis A, Mehta S, Hanna LN, et al. Low serum levels of microRNA-19 are associated with a stricturing Crohn’s disease phenotype. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015;21:1926-1934.
97. Tarrant KM, Barclay ML, Frampton CM, Gearry RB. Perianal disease predict changes in Crohn’s disease phenotype: results of a population-based study of inflammatory bowel disease phenotype. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:3082-3093.
98. Romberg-Camps MJ, Dagnelie PC, Kester AD, et al. Influence of phenotype at diagnosis and of other potential prognostic factors on the course of inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104:371-383.
100. Rieder F, Lawrance IC, Leite A, Sans M. Predictors of fibrostenotic Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011;17:2000-2007.
102. Louis E, Michel V, Hugot JP, et al. Early development of stricturing or penetrating pattern in Crohn’s disease is influenced by disease location, number of flares, and smoking but not by
NOD2/CARD15 genotype. Gut 2003;52:552-557.
105. Adler J, Rangwalla SC, Dwamena BA, Higgins PD. The prognostic power of the
NOD2 genotype for complicated Crohn’s disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2011;106:699-712.
106. Brant SR, Picco MF, Achkar JP, et al. Defining complex contributions of
NOD2/CARD15 gene mutations, age at onset, and tobacco use on Crohn’s disease phenotypes. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2003;9:281-289.
111. Allez M, Lemann M, Bonnet J, Cattan P, Jian R, Modigliani R. Long term outcome of patients with active Crohn’s disease exhibiting extensive and deep ulcerations at colonoscopy. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:947-953.
113. Adler J, Punglia DR, Dillman JR, et al. Computed tomography enterography findings correlate with tissue inflammation, not fibrosis in resected small bowel Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012;18:849-856.
114. Maconi G, Carsana L, Fociani P, et al. Small bowel stenosis in Crohn’s disease: clinical, biochemical and ultrasonographic evaluation of histological features. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003;18:749-756.
115. Pallotta N, Vincoli G, Montesani C, et al. Small intestine contrast ultrasonography (SICUS) for the detection of small bowel complications in Crohn’s disease: a prospective comparative study versus intraoperative findings. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012;18:74-84.
116. Vogel J, da Luz Moreira A, Baker M, et al. CT enterography for Crohn’s disease: accurate preoperative diagnostic imaging. Dis Colon Rectum 2007;50:1761-1769.
117. Kumar S, Hakim A, Alexakis C, et al. Small intestinal contrast ultrasonography for the detection of small bowel complications in Crohn’s disease: correlation with intraoperative findings and magnetic resonance enterography. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015;30:86-91.
118. Pous-Serrano S, Frasson M, Palasí Giménez R, et al. Accuracy of magnetic resonance enterography in the preoperative assessment of patients with Crohn’s disease of the small bowel. Colorectal Dis 2017;19-O126-O133.
119. Sinha R, Murphy P, Sanders S, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of high-resolution MR enterography in Crohn’s disease: comparison with surgical and pathological specimen. Clin Radiol 2013;68:917-927.
120. Takenaka K, Ohtsuka K, Kitazume Y, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance and balloon enteroscopic examination of the small intestine in patients with Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2014;147:334-342.
121. Castiglione F, Mainenti PP, De Palma GD, et al. Noninvasive diagnosis of small bowel Crohn’s disease: direct comparison of bowel sonography and magnetic resonance enterography. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2013;19:991-998.
125. Gramlich T, Petras RE. Pathology of inflammatory bowel disease. Semin Pediatr Surg 2007;16:154-163.
128. Allocca M, Fiorino G, Bonifacio C, Peyrin-Biroulet L, Danese S. Noninvasive multimodal methods to differentiate inflamed vs fibrotic strictures in patients with Crohn’s disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019;17:2397-2415.
129. Choi SH, Kim KW, Lee JY, Kim KJ, Park SH. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance enterography for evaluating bowel inflammation in Crohn’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2016;22:669-679.
133. Gordon IO, Bettenworth D, Bokemeyer A, et al. Histopathology scoring systems of stenosis associated with small bowel Crohn’s disease: a systematic review. Gastroenterology 2020;158:137-150.
134. Benitez JM, Meuwis MA, Reenaers C, van Kemseke C, Meunier P, Louis E. Role of endoscopy, cross-sectional imaging and biomarkers in Crohn’s disease monitoring. Gut 2013;62:1806-1816.
135. Pariente B, Cosnes J, Danese S, et al. Development of the Crohn’s disease digestive damage score, the Lémann score. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011;17:1415-1422.
136. Yaffe BH, Korelitz BI. Prognosis for nonoperative management of small-bowel obstruction in Crohn’s disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 1983;5:211-215.
139. Reinisch W, Angelberger S, Petritsch W, et al. Azathioprine versus mesalazine for prevention of postoperative clinical recurrence in patients with Crohn’s disease with endoscopic recurrence: efficacy and safety results of a randomised, double-blind, double-dummy, multicentre trial. Gut 2010;59:752-759.
140. Ardizzone S, Maconi G, Sampietro GM, et al. Azathioprine and mesalamine for prevention of relapse after conservative surgery for Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2004;127:730-740.
142. Szabò H, Fiorino G, Spinelli A, et al. Review article: anti-fibrotic agents for the treatment of Crohn’s disease: lessons learnt from other diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:189-201.
143. Videla S, Vilaseca J, Medina C, et al. Selective inhibition of phosphodiesterase-4 ameliorates chronic colitis and prevents intestinal fibrosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006;316:940-945.
146. Lichtenstein GR, Olson A, Travers S, et al. Factors associated with the development of intestinal strictures or obstructions147. Bouhnik Y, Carbonnel F, Laharie D, et al. Efficacy of adalimumab in patients with Crohn’s disease and symptomatic small bowel stricture: a multicentre, prospective, observational cohort (CREOLE) study. Gut 2018;67:53-60.
147. Bouhnik Y, Carbonnel F, Laharie D, et al. Efficacy of adalimumab in patients with Crohn’s disease and symptomatic small bowel stricture: a multicentre, prospective, observational cohort (CREOLE) study. Gut 2018;67:53-60.
149. Nguyen GC, Loftus EV Jr, Hirano I, et al. American Gastroenterological Association Institute guideline on the management of Crohn’s disease after surgical resection. Gastroenterology 2017;152:271-275.
153. Ma C, Fedorak RN, Kaplan GG, et al. Clinical, endoscopic and radiographic outcomes with ustekinumab in medically-refractory Crohn’s disease: real world experience from a multicenter cohort. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017;45:1232-1243.
155. Bettenworth D, Gustavsson A, Atreja A, et al. A pooled analysis of efficacy, safety, and long-term outcome of endoscopic balloon dilation therapy for patients with stricturing Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2017;23:133-142.
156. Shen B, Kochhar G, Navaneethan U, et al. Role of interventional inflammatory bowel disease in the era of biologic therapy: a position statement from the Global Interventional IBD Group. Gastrointest Endosc 2019;89:215-237.
157. Chen M, Shen B. Comparable short- and long-term outcomes of colonoscopic balloon dilation of Crohn’s disease and benign non-Crohn’s disease strictures. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2014;20:1739-1746.
158. Lian L, Stocchi L, Remzi FH, Shen B. Comparison of endoscopic dilation vs surgery for anastomotic stricture in patients with Crohn’s disease following ileocolonic resection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017;15:1226-1231.
160. Chen M, Shen B. Endoscopic therapy in Crohn’s disease: principle, preparation, and technique. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2015;21:2222-2240.
162. Levine RA, Wasvary H, Kadro O. Endoprosthetic management of refractory ileocolonic anastomotic strictures after resection for Crohn’s disease: report of nine-year follow-up and review of the literature. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012;18:506-512.
164. Morar PS, Faiz O, Warusavitarne J, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: endoscopic balloon dilatation for Crohn’s disease strictures. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015;42:1137-1148.
166. Kulungowski AM, Acker SN, Hoffenberg EJ, Neigut D, Partrick DA. Initial operative treatment of isolated ileal Crohn’s disease in adolescents. Am J Surg 2015;210:141-145.
167. Latella G, Cocco A, Angelucci E, et al. Clinical course of Crohn’s disease first diagnosed at surgery for acute abdomen. Dig Liver Dis 2009;41:269-276.
168. Lee CH, Rieder F, Holubar SD. Duodenojejunal bypass and strictureplasty for diffuse small bowel Crohn’s disease with a step-by-step visual guide. Crohns Colitis 360 2019;1-otz002.
172. Yamamoto T, Fazio VW, Tekkis PP. Safety and efficacy of strictureplasty for Crohn’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dis Colon Rectum 2007;50:1968-1986.
173. Oku H, Shimizu T, Kawabata T, et al. Antifibrotic action of pirfenidone and prednisolone: different effects on pulmonary cytokines and growth factors in bleomycin-induced murine pulmonary fibrosis. Eur J Pharmacol 2008;590:400-408.
174. Noble PW, Albera C, Bradford WZ, et al. Pirfenidone in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (CAPACITY): two randomised trials. Lancet 2011;377:1760-1769.
175. Li G, Ren J, Hu Q, et al. Oral pirfenidone protects against fibrosis by inhibiting fibroblast proliferation and TGF-beta signaling in a murine colitis model. Biochem Pharmacol 2016;117:57-67.
176. Sun YW, Zhang YY, Ke XJ, Wu XJ, Chen ZF, Chi P. Pirfenidone prevents radiation-induced intestinal fibrosis in rats by inhibiting fibroblast proliferation and differentiation and suppressing the TGF-beta1/Smad/CTGF signaling pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 2018;822:199-206.
177. Meier R, Lutz C, Cosín-Roger J, et al. Decreased fibrogenesis after treatment with pirfenidone in a newly developed mouse model of intestinal fibrosis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2016;22:569-582.
178. Kadir SI, Wenzel Kragstrup T, Dige A, Kok Jensen S, Dahlerup JF, Kelsen J. Pirfenidone inhibits the proliferation of fibroblasts from patients with active Crohn’s disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 2016;51:1321-1325.
179. Huang J, Beyer C, Palumbo-Zerr K, et al. Nintedanib inhibits fibroblast activation and ameliorates fibrosis in preclinical models of systemic sclerosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2016;75:883-890.
181. Rieder F. ROCKing the field of intestinal fibrosis or between a ROCK and a hard place? Gastroenterology 2017;153:895-897.
183. Danese S, Bonovas S, Lopez A, et al. Identification of endpoints for development of antifibrosis drugs for treatment of Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2018;155:76-87.
184. Pariente B, Hu S, Bettenworth D, et al. Treatments for Crohn’s disease-associated bowel damage: a systematic review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019;17:847-856.